The area of contemporary Kraków has been inhabited from the prehistoric times. Archaeological research shows that the oldest traces of the existence of humans in the region date back to the Palaeolithic Era (ca. 100,000 BC). With the passage of time, more and more houses were built in this area, especially on the fertile grounds along the Vistula River, as well as other rivers in the immediate vicinity of the town. There were hills stretching around the town, performing an important defensive function, Wawel being the most significant one. Its name derives from the Old Polish word wąwel, meaning “a dry hill over marshes.” The Niepołomnicka Forest stretched out in the vicinity of the settlement and the local soil was rich with natural resources, such as rock salta[1.1]. Such good conditions undoubtedly favoured settlement in the Kraków region.
At the turn of the 8th century, Krakus (the legendary founder of the town) and Wanda (who, as legend has it, threw herself into the abyss of the river in order not to marry a German) built burial mounds here. The historic part of the town was situated on the Wawel Hill, surrounded by marshes formed along the Vistula River. It is estimated that Kraków was built in the 9th century as an important centre of the state of the Vistulan tribe. The oldest mention of the town dates back to 965, when Jewish trader and traveller Ibrahim ibn Yaqub mentioned Kraków in his report on the Slavic countries, describing it as a wealthy and important political and administrative centre, situated at the intersection of the main trading routes such as, for example, the Amber Trade Route. Its territory included not only the territory of the Wawel Hill, but also stretched further into the territory of today's square at the St. Mary Magdalene Church.
Polish King Mieszko I incorporated Kraków into Poland in the second half of the 10th century. From that time onwards, the history of the town was strongly connected with Poland. During the Congress of Gniezno in 1000, Bolesław Chrobry, established a Bishopric in Kraków at the tomb of St Adalbert of Prague; it was a part of the effort to organise church structures in the entire Polish state. It was at that time that the construction of the Wawel Cathedral commenced. However, the first rulers were politically and administratively connected with Gniezno. It was not until 1038 that King Kazimierz Odnowiciel made Wawel his residence and established Kraków as the capital of Poland. He also established the Tyniec monastery near the town and brought in Benedictine monks, who played an important part in the rebirth of the Polish Church and the reinforcement of Christianity[1.2]. In 1076, King Bolesław Śmiały crowned himself king in the Kraków Cathedral.
Within a short period of time. Kraków became the spiritual capital of Poland. In mid-13th century, there were twenty five churches in the town[[1.3]. Many religious congregations were active, among them the Norbertine Convent in Zwierzyniec, the Cisterians Abbey in Mogilno and the Franciscans. Their role was connected not only with religious issues, but also with the development of education. Subsequent rulers strove to expand and develop of the city, which in the 12th century boasted a rich library and a cathedral school which at the time was the best higher education facility in the country. In that period of time, Kraków consisted of loosely connected settlements situated on the hills. The Wawel Hill constituted the very centre of the town, with with the Duke town and sacred buildings located on its north-eastern side, and a fortified settlement inhabited by merchants and craftsmen situated on its south-western side.
In the second half of the 12th century, Kraków was destroyed and plundered by invading Tatars. During the following years the city was rebuilt; many Gothic buildings were constructed. On 5 June 1257, Kraków was chartered under the Magdeburg Law by Bolesław Wstydliwy in Kopernia near Szydłowiec[1.4]. The status of the city brought about many privileges to the local population. A huge marketplace was designated, with street running perpendicularly to all its corners. In this way, the town took on a chequered pattern, which included such buildings as St. Mary's Basilica and St. Adalbert's Church. The Main Market Square was the pride of the city.
In the early Middle Ages, Kraków became an important economic centre. Craftsmen had their guild in the town and trade began developing there. Salt from the nearby mines in Bochnia and Wieliczka, as well as lead and copper from the deposits in Olkusz, were sold in Kraków. The burghers, at first primarily Germans, played an important role in the town’s development. In that period, the first Jewish settlers appeared; they lived mainly in the vicinity of today’s Św. Anny Street.
In 1286, the town was fortified by moats and timber-earthen constructions which, with the passage of time, were expanded with a defensive wall, wall towers, entry gates, etc.
Poland was unified at the beginning of the 14th century. On 20 January 1320, Duke of Sandomierz and Kraków Władysław Łokietek crowned himself king in the Wawel Cathedral. He was the first Polish ruler to be buried in the Wawel Hill. On 25 April 1333, Kazimierz Wielki was crowned King of Poland. In 1364, the monarch invited many European rulers to Kraków. Their meeting concluded with a sumptuous feast in the house of Kraków-based trader and banker, Mikołaj Wierzynek.
On 27 February 1335, Kazimierz Wielki chartered the new town of Kazimierz, which soon was granted separate fortification[1.5]. Kazimierz soon become an important commercial centre of production and a place where Jews started to settle.
In 1366,, the new settlement of Kleparz (formerly called Florencja, in honour of St Florian's Church) was granted city status by royal decree. Despite the fact that Kleparz was never surrounded by defensive walls, it become an important trade and crafts centre.
Trade flourished during the reign of Kazimierz Wielki. The Cloth Hall was expanded; new sanctuaries were built. The king erected a magnificent Gothic castle on the Wawel Hill. Waterworks were built, streets were paved, baths were extended and a hospital network was developed. On 12 May 1364, the king founded the Kraków Academy, which later became the Jagiellonian University. This led to Kraków becoming an important university centre in Central Europe (at that time, Prague University was the only university in the region). The Academy consisted of three departments – Medicine, Liberal Arts and Law[1.6].
The next ruler who played an important role in the history of the city was Władysław Jagiełło. His ceremonial entry into Kraków took place in 1386. He was baptised in the Wawel Cathedral, married Queen Jadwiga and was crowned King of Poland. It was Jadwiga who became the “spirit of the city.” As the founder of many churches, she was liked by her subjects. Unfortunately, she died prematurely in postpartum period in 1399 (600 years later, she was canonised by Pope John Paul II)[1.7].
In the 15th century, Kraków, as the residence of the Jagiellon dynasty, became the capital of a powerful, multi-national monarchy. It was the centre of cultural, scientific and artistic development of the country. Thanks to the funds from the Royal Treasury, the importance of the Kraków Acadamy grew considerably. A fourth department was created – Theology, and new buildings were bought to accommodate the university (also as a result of Jewish relocation). Hungarian, Czech, Moravian, Pomeranian and Western European students came to study here[1.8]. Wit Stwosz , the creator of the famous altar in St. Mary's Basilica, lived here at that time. Kraków hosted three fairs – in May, June, and September. The city was surrounded by an additional moat. The characteristic Barbican was built near the Florian Gate (constructed in 1300), The 15th century was also a successful period, with the economy, craft and trade thriving. The city belonged to the Hanseatic League; the Trade and Merchant Congregation was established. This century was a period of Jewish exile from Kraków, with a large number of Jews settling in Kazimierz.
At the turn of the 16th century, the royal residence on the Wawel Hill was rebuilt. Thanks to the efforts of Italian architects, it became a jewel of Renaissance architecture. Near the Cathedral, Bartolommeo Berrecci built the King Zygmunt Chapel, which was a royal mausoleum, unrivalled anywhere in Poland.
In the same period, Zygmunt Stary ascended to the throne (1507-1548). He was very reluctant to ever leave his royal residence on the Wawel Hill due to constant mass meetings, balls, tournaments, Sejm debates, and diplomatic receptions being held there[1.9]. The king's wife, Bona Sforza from Italy, introduced the Italian customs and way of living to Kraków. In 1520, the belfry was given the largest Polish bell, “Zygmunt.” Wawel's famous tapestries were ordered from Flanders in 1526, and were created according to the designs of Michael Coxien[1.10]. In 1525, another important event in Poland's history took place. The Grand Master of the Teutonic Order came to pay homage to the Polish King in Kraków's Market Square[1.11]. The 16th century was the “golden age” for the development of culture in Kraków. Many eminent humanists, architects and artists were active in the university, in the bishop's palace and in the royal court. In the second half of the 16th century, a wave of religious innovation spread through the city.
Zygmunt Stary died in 1548. His son, Zygmunt August, as well as his successors, spent considerably less time in Kraków. Henryk Walezy left for France to ascend to the throne there after ruling for mere four months. Stephen Batory fought battles in the East. At the end of the 16th century, the city's development slowed down. In 1587, it was besieged by Duke of Austria Maximilian, a pretender to the Polish throne[1.12]. In 1609, King Zugmunt III Vasa went off to war in Smolensk soon after the birth of his son, Jan Kazimierz. He moved with his family to Warsaw and, as a result, many important people left Kraków. The city lost its status as the capital and the centre of authority. The Wawel Castle become only the place for the coronations and funerals of the kings[1.13]
In the 17th and the 18th century, the significance of the city gradually declined. In mid-17th century, Kraków was captured by Swedes during the so-called Swedish Deluge (1655-1660). The neighbouring settlement of Kazimierz was almost completely destroyed by the invaders. The occupation, which lasted two years, caused the economic decline of the town and of its inhabitants. High tributes were imposed. Property was confiscated. Many valuable artworks were looted[1.14]. In addition, the people of Kraków suffered a flooding of the Vistula River and a breakout of a smallpox epidemic which took the lives of more than 20,000 people[1.15].
The city was almost entirely depopulated. Due to epidemics and natural disasters, more than 24,000 inhabitants of Kraków died (including 3,500 Jews)[1.16]. Many houses were abandoned. All were affected by death – both the poor and the wealthy died (among them an outstanding mathematician, Jan Brożek)[1.17]. After the Swedish Deluge, Jan Kazimierz returned to the city together with his wife. However, due to severe damage to the Wawel Hill, he settled in the Bishop's Palace. “The bodies of the dead were still lying on the streets. (...) houses were in ruins, razed to the ground or consumed by fire. The marketplace was blocked by defensive fortifications and palisades”[1.18].
The situation in the city improved for a short period of time during the reign of Jan III Sobieski. He changed the manner by which the city council administered the town. He supported Jews and Protestants. He set off to war from the nearby village of Łobzów, where he was welcomed following the successful relief of Vienna in December 1683[1.19]
During the reign of August II Mocny, the town experienced further decline. In 1700, the Swedish Army again entered Poland. During the occupation, they imposed high tributes on the inhabitants of Kraków. A large part of the Royal Palace on the Wawel Hill was damaged in a fire. In the 18th century, there was another epidemic outbreak. In 1731, the coronation of August III was held on the partially rebuilt Wawel; it was the last coronation to take place in Kraków[1.20] The last king of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, visited Kraków only once – in 1787[1.21]. Despite many steps taken to save this formerly important city, its economy could not be rescued. Some positive results came about through the reform of the Jagiellonian University introduced by Hugo Kołłątaj in the years 1777-1780. As a result, Polish was introduced as the language of instruction and new departments were created. At Hugo Kołłątaj's initiative, a new university clinic (first such institution in Poland), an astronomical observatory and a botanical garden were built.
In the second half of the 18th century, during the period of the Bar Confederation, Kraków become the scene of many battles. In the summer of 1768, the Russian Army entered the city. However, the worst blow for the city was the First Partition of Poland in 1772. During negotiations regarding the status of Kraków and Kazimierz, the Austrians at first wanted Kazimierz to be the most important administrative centre. However, because it had returned to Poland in 1776, the occupants were confronted with the dilemma of having no major centre in the region. The Chief Settlement Commissioner moved his registry office to Ludwinowo, and a settlement at the foot of the Lasota Mountain was extended and called Podgórze (sometimes s the name “Josephstadt” may be found in secondary sources, but there are no documents to support it)[1.22].
The history of Podgórze dates back to the Middle Ages, the evidence of which is the presence of the Krakus Mound and St Benedict's Church[1.23]. From 1781, craftsmen and traders began to arrive here, encouraged by a settlement licence which allowed Protestants freedom of religious observances[1.24] On 26 February 1784, Podgórze was granted city rights. Thanks to its convenient location, the city developed quickly and dynamically. In 1787, there were 108 houses in Podgórze, and the number of people reached about 1,000[1.25]. New administrative and industrial buildings as well as salt storehouses and roadhouses were built. The first mayor of Podgórze was Jędrzej Komarnicki[1.26]. In 1822, there were 1,900 inhabitants in the city, in 1870 – 4,252 inhabitants, and in 1889 – 12,530 inhabitants. Podgórze owed its success to the development of industry. There were four quarries in the area. Stone was processed in special kilns, for instance in the “Bonarka” cement factory. Among other enterprises active at the time was Holfstadter’s ironware factory, a steel mill, a sheet and galvanising mill, a soda factory and the “Liban” fertilizer production plant. Many investments were initiated by Jews[1.27]. Besides the economy, cultural and social life flourished in Pogórze. Some of the prominent inhabitants of the town were actor Juliusz Osterwa and Wojciech Bednarskiwas a teacher and the headmaster of one of the local schools. There was a high school, technical colleges, a library and the Sokół Society in the town.
During that time, due to administrative regulations, Kraków, Kleparz and Kazimierz were merged into one urban structure. The process, however, was only concluded under Austrian rule[1.28].
During the insurrection of 1794, Kościuszko pledged to struggle for independence and to defend the borders in his speech given on Kraków’s Main Square. A year later Poland was partitioned, putting an end to Kraków’s former status. The city came under Austrian rule. On 5 January 1796, Austrian troops ceremonially entered Kraków[1.29]. A process of Germanising the city began. German became the official language. There was a German theatre in the city and newspapers were published in German. The Kraków Academy was relegated to the role of a provincial school with German being predominantly the language of instruction[1.30].
At the same time, “civilising” changes were introduced. The town was divided into four quarters, a bridge on the Vistula was built, and a new cemetery – today known as the Rakowicki Cemetery – was established. The changes also encompassed the demolition of a part of city walls and some of the churches – which led to the loss of a number of valuable heritage sites. The Wawel Castle was converted into barracks.
It seemed that the situation of Kraków started to improve in early 19th century. The town was incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw. Polish language, theatre, and school system were briefly revived. Some positive changes could be seen in the economy. Kraków became of “free trade” town[1.31]. This state of affairs ended with the defeat of Napoleon, though the importance of Kraków was not entirely lost.
During the Congress of Vienna in 1815, it was decided that Kraków, together with its surrounding district, would became the Republic of Kraków, under Austrian, Russian, and Prussian rule (Podgórze returned to Austria). The Republic of Kraków consisted of Kraków and its suburbs, four nearby towns, and 223 villages. Power was vested in the Governing Senate, with the President as leader (the first President was Earl Stanisław Wodzicki), and the Assembly of Representatives. 23,000 people lived in the city. As the only free Polish city, Kraków became a patriotic and revolutionary centre, as well as the burial place for national heroes such as Józef Poniatowski (1817) and Tadeusz Kościuszko (1818)[1.32].
The year 1846 saw the outbreak of the Kraków Uprising led by Dembowski and Tyssowski; the rebellion was quickly put down. As a result, the city was incorporated into the Austrian monarchy, where it belonged to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and was the second most important centre after the region’s capital, Lviv. In 1844, construction commenced on a railway station to be a part of the Kraków-Górny Śląsk Railway. Trains began running through the town in 1847. In the years 1851-1856, the city gained access to the Charles Louis Railway, providing a connection with Vienna and Lviv. This development infused new life into Kraków.
In 1900, 90,000 inhabitants lived in the city. The decision taken by the local government (i.e by Mayor Juliusz Leo) led to the development of a waterworks network and regulating the river network by filling in the old bed of the Vistula River and creating the Dietel Park in its place[1.33]. The city's electrification had already occurred before the outbreak of the war. In that period, Kraków witnessed much architectural investment, such as the Adam Mickiewicz monument located on the Main Square and the Grunwald monument on Matejko Square. Moreover, impressive tenement buildings were erected on Karmelicka, Studencka, and Dietla streets. The Cloth Hall was restored and the Municipal Theatre was built[1.34] In addition, the fortifications were modernised. In the years 1910-1915, the Great Kraków Regulation Plan was introduced and partly implemented. It allowed for expanding the city's administrative borders through the incorporation of settlements and villages in its vicinity.
In the first years of the 20th century, Kraków was the leading centre of Polish culture. The Jagiellonian University developed its academic activity by attracting students from outside Galicia. The Academy of Learning was very active, as were many academic institutions such as the National Museum, the Ethnographic Museum, and the State Archive. Many organisations operated in the town, including the Medical Society, the Society of Friends of Fine Arts and the People's University. The Municipal Theatre featured performances by outstanding directors and actors (e.g. Juliusz Solski and Jozef Kotarbiński). Artists such as Wojciech Kossak, Julian Fałat and Józef Mehoffer exhibited their works in the Palace of Arts[1.35].
From the beginning of the 20th century, Kraków was a centre of military development, with a number of organisations preparing to fight, if necessary, for the independence of Poland. For this reason, and with partial Austrian permission, the Union of Active Struggle, the Falcon's Fields Brigades, the Polish Army, the Polish Rifle Squads and others were formed. On 6 August 1914, the First Cadre Company set off and entered territory controlled by Russians. In that month, Archduke Friedrich appointed the Polish Legions.
With the outbreak of World War I, however, the situation in the city became difficult. Despite the fact that Kraków was considered one of the most powerful strongholds of the Habsburg Empire due to its surrounding fortifications, several thousand people escaped from the city for fear of the Russian Army[1.36] During the brief period of battles the city was spared major physical damage, but its economic aftermath proved to be more dire as it brought about poverty, unemployment, famine, and social dissatisfaction. The situation began to stabilise during the interwar period.
Polish flags were raised in Kraków in 31 October 1918, when other cities were still under the occupation of the Central Powers. It was in Kraków where the Polish Liquidation Committee, with Wincent Witos as its leader, initiated its operation[1.37]. The general atmosphere in the city was very solemn. Numerous patriotic demonstrations, rallies, and church services took place. It was believed that an independent Poland would soon be formed. This belief created unity amongst the inhabitants of Kraków, both Jews and Christians. Pressing socio-economic problems started to be solved. The number of city councillors was increased to 24 and the general population was supplied with necessary goods and strove to maintain its status of the “capital of culture” through the development of the Jagiellonian University, the National Museum, the Academy of Fine Arts, and so on. After Poland regained independence in 1918, Kraków became an important administrative centre for local culture and art. In 1921, Kraków had a population of 138,706. It was Poland's fifth most populated city after Warsaw, Łódź, and Lviv; in the interwar period, it also ranked above Poznań[1.38].
During the interwar period, Kraków was a multicultural city. According to the 1921 census, the population comprised Poles (84.3%), Jews (14.7%), plus Germans, Ukrainians, and Russians (1%). In 1931, there were 219,286 inhabitants in Kraków, among them 45,800 Jews (20.9%).
At the time, the legal basis for Kraków's local government was its city charter dating back to 1901 (with several amendments). Such legal status persisted until 1933, when new regulations on local government were introduced. The city council was dissolved twice – in 1924 and in 1931. The first mayor of Kraków in independent Poland was Jan Kanty Fedorowicz, a long-standing city councillor, at first a conservative, and from 1907 a democrat. In the years 1911-1914 he sat in the Galician National Parliament. When he was elected as a Member of Parliament for the Continual Sejm, he entrusted his deputy mayors with his municipal duties. He died in 1924, while still in office. The provincial governor dissolved the City Council and assigned its responsibilities to a government commissioner, three vice-mayors, and a council consisting of 36 members[1.39]. The issue was resolved in 1926 with the reactivation of the City Council. Up until then, the post of the commissioner had been performed by Zdzisław Wawrausch and Witold Ostrowski. At the first meeting of the reactivated Council, a new mayor, Karol Rolle, with many years of experience as a councillor, was elected. From 1913, Rolle acted as the deputy mayor of Podgórze. He was one of the founders of the Non-Partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government, and was twice elected (1928 and 1930) as a Member of Parliament on behalf of this organisation. In 1931, the reactivated City Council was again dissolved. That same year, Władysław Belina-Prażmowski, a colonel in the Polish Army and a legionnaire, was elected as Mayor[1.40]. He held the office in a period of a difficult economical crisis for only one and a half year, until he accepted the post of the Provincial Governor of Lviv. The next mayor, elected in 1933, was Mieczysław Kaplicki.
When the new regulations on local government came into force, they resulted in further changes to the Council. The first election, based on a new electoral system, took place on 10 December 1933, with a 70% voter turnout[1.41]. It ended with the success of Sanation and the Jewish Independent Bloc for Economic Cooperation. Mieczysław Kaplicki once again became mayor and introduced a policy of austerity, aimed at reducing the city's indebtedness while still being able to earn a good income. In 1938, another election took place. This time, socialist groups and the National Party won over Sanation. In January 1939, Kaplicki resigned from his position[1.42]. Due to an impasse in the City Council in 1939, it was not possible to choose a new mayor. At first, the function was temporarily fulfilled by Bolesław Czuchajewski and, from the beginning of September 1939, by Stanisław Klimecki, who was soon arrested by Germans (at first on 20 September)[1.43].
Kraków's political life in the interwar period was flourishing. Many political organisations were active. One of the most important was a small group of conservatives who had considerable influence on the population. They had once had a connection with the imperial court, but had difficulty organising themselves in the interwar Kraków. Christian social and nationalist parties arose. Kraków's left-wing political scene consisted of socialists, while peasant or communist parties did not enjoy much support[1.44]. After the May Coup, in Kraków, the Non-Partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government was established. This played an important part in parliamentary elections. In the 1930s, the National Party was very active; some of their activities targeted Jews.
Kraków, being the “royal city,” was very often the site of many important political, social, and cultural events. One of them, held in May 1935, was the funeral of Marshal Józef Piłsudski, who was buried in St. Leonard's Crypt in the Wawel Castle[1.45]. The ceremony was the largest demonstration of patriotism in interwar Kraków. A memorial mound for the Marshal was built in Słowiniec; it is still open to visitors.
The interwar period was a time of investments, including communications, urbanisation, and construction. An airport was built in Czyżyny and a new bridge, the Piłsudski Bridge, was constricted on the Vistula. Tramlines were extended and the Avenue of Three Poets was developed. Many new buildings were erected, including the Jagiellonian Library, the National Museum, the PKO Bank, the Narutowicza Hospital and others. Moreover, the Oficerskie housing estate in Olsza and residential houses in the region of Cichy Kącik were built. On the eve of World War II, Kraków had a population of 259,000 people[1.46].
When World War II broke out, Kraków came under German occupation, which, according to calculations, lasted exactly 1,869 days[1.47]. By Adolf Hitler's decree, the General Government was established, with Kraków as its capital[1.1.47]. Its governor was Hans Frank, who situated his headquarters in the Wawel Castle. The city's high schools, primary and secondary schools, museums and theatres were all closed down. In their stead, pseudo-institutions, such as the Institute of German Works in the East, were created. Names of streets were replaced with German ones – the Main Market Square became the Adolf-Hitler-Platz. Many monuments and memorials were destroyed, among them the Grunwald Monument and the Adam Mickiewicz Monument. Many artworks were stolen. Despite the fact that relatively few architectural sites were destroyed during World War II, the occupation wreaked havoc in the town, not only when it came to material culture. On 6 November 1939, professors of the Jagiellonian University and the most eminent representatives of the city's intellectual elite were sent off to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp.
The rule of Hans Frank in Kraków was extremely bloody. Many public executions were carried out. Jews suffered the most cruel persecutions. During the last mass execution of the occupation period, held on 15 January 1945 in Dębie, 86 people were killed. Poles were displaced from many districts of Kraków, areas which Germans wanted to transform into typically German ones. During the course of the war, Germans began to fortify the city against the Red Army. They built barriers and bunkers and even planned to completely destroy the Wawel Castle.
On 17 January 1945, Governor General Hans Frank left the Wawel Castle. The Red Army entered the city together with the security police. Kraków came under the command of Colonel Fiodosienko. A rally for the Polish public was organised at the Main Square and an appeal was made to the crowd. Bolesław Bierut and Edward Osóbka-Morawski arrived in the city. A local government – the Municipal National Council consisting of 72 members, was established[1.48]. In January 1945, Dr Alfred Fiderkiewicz was appointed mayor of the city. He was succeeded by Stefan Wolas.
Post-war Kraków was the only Polish town that had more inhabitants than before the war. In 1946, there were 300,000 people living there. Schools such as the Jagiellonian University, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Trade Academy, the School of Mining Engineering and others quickly reopened, as did libraries, museums, and theatres. Nonetheless, despite the seemingly peaceful cultural and academic life, Kraków's population was being prepared for the new times.
From the beginning of the 1950s, local governments in all Polish cities were removed and replaced by the Praesidium of the Municipal National Council, with its chairman taking the post of the mayor[1.49]. The security services in the town were largely expanded; among them were the Citizen's Militia, the Security Office, and courts. At the same time, until 1946–1947, an anti-communist underground was active in Kraków.
The Catholic church played an important role in the postwar Kraków. The city was even called “the Polish Rome”[1.50]. The small but strong group of Kraków’s intelligentsia was focused around Catholic magazines such as the weekly Tygodnik Powszechny and the monthly Znak. Kraków's resistance to the communist rule was visible during a protest organised against Sovietisation on 3 May 1946.
At the same time the national authorities made a decision to build a big metallurgical conglomerate – Nowa Huta, which in time was to become the symbol of the new Kraków. The communist authorities wanted to create a new socialist city right next to the conservative, traditionalist centre[1.51]. Nowa Huta was included in a six-year plan meant to create the foundations of communism. It was to be built in a rural area, 15 kilometres outside of Kraków. Soon after its opening, it employed 20,000 people, who lived in an enormous housing estate built around the conglomerate. The authorities also sought to emphasise the connections between historical Kraków and communist traditions. Information about Lenin's stay in the city in the years 1912–1914 was widely propagated. An impressive Lenin monument was erected on Aleja Róż Street in Nowa Huta, and the Lenin Museum was opened on Topolowa Street[1.52]. While keeping focus on Lenin in the communist propaganda, the regime also attempted to erase the importance of Józef Piłsudski. The fate and legacy of Jewish Kazimierz was forgotten. Many religious remnants were removed.
An important period for Kraków was when an outstanding intellectual, Karol Wojtyła, served as the local archbishop (starting from 1966). Thanks to him, a church was built in Nowa Huta (which in a way change the intended message of the communist town). He also supported historical traditions, for example holding processions to the “Skałka” monastery[1.53]. On 16 November 1978, Karol Wojtyła became Pope John Paul II. His first pilgrimage to the country (including Kraków), made one year into his papacy, played an important part in further political transformations.
In 1980, the Lenin Steelworks (the main part of Nowa Huta) and other industrial plants were hit with a wave of strikes. In September, the Inter-Enterprise Committee of the “Solidarity” Independent Self-Governing Labour Union was established. In March 1980, in an act of self-immolation, Walenty Badylak protested against the cover-up of the Katyn massacre[1.54].
Another wave of strikes hit Nowa Huta upon the imposition of martial law on 13 December 1981. In June 1982, a direct confrontation with the authorities arose when, after a church service, a station of the Citizen's Militia was attacked. More than 2,000 people participated in the demonstration on 13 August 1982. Bogdan Włosik died tragically and more than 60 militia officers were injured in the clashes[1.55].
Towards the end of the 1980s, another strike hit the Lenin Steelworks. The demonstration began on 26 April 1988 in the Zgniatacz Rolling Mill. Militia squads entered the smelting plant on the night of 4 May. The strike was put down with brutal force but it was the pebble which started an avalanche. The government was unable to control mass demonstrations throughout Poland. It was forced to begin a conversation with the nation.
After the period of political transformations, Kraków kept its reputation as the cultural capital. In fact, in 1978, Kazimierz and the historic area of the Old Town were given the status of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. After the Polish border were open, the town became one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe. In 2008, it was visited by 7.5 million tourists, including 2 million foreigners.
On 18 April 2010, the funeral ceremony of President of Poland Lech Kaczynski and his wife Maria (who died in a tragic plane crash) took place in St. Mary's Basilica. They were buried in one of the crypts of the Wawel Castle.
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- Chwalba A., Dzieje Krakowa – Kraków 1945–1989, Kraków 2004.
- Dzieszyński R., Franczyk J. L., Encyklopedia Nowej Huty, Kraków 2006.
- Małecki J. M., Czasy renesansowego rozkwitu, [in] Dzieje Krakowa. Kraków w wiekach XVI–XVIII, Kraków 1984.
- Małecki J. M., Historia Krakowa dla każdego, Kraków 2008.
- Małecki J. M., Kraków w dobie oświecenia, [in] Dzieje Krakowa. Kraków w wiekach XVI–XVIII, Kraków 1984.
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- Małecki J. M., Utrata przodującej roli politycznej w państwie, [in] Dzieje Krakowa. Kraków w wiekach XVI–XVIII, Kraków 1984.
- Pankowicz A., Organizacja czynu zbrojnego w Krakowie 1906–1918, [in] Kraków w czasie I wojny światowej, Kraków 1990.
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