Jewish presence in Żytomierz was documented as early as 1486, but Jews probably settled in the town properly only in 1580 despite not being legally permitted. During the Chmielnicki’s uprising, Cossack and Tatar troops ravaged the town and essentially destroyed the Jewish community.

In the aftermath of the uprising, however, the community was able to reestablish itself and began to play a significant role in town life. In the mid-18th century, there were 460 Jews registered in the Żytomierz community, which included both the town and its environs. In 1787, 70 of 175 dwellings near the market square belonged to Jews and a synagogue was located in the market square. In 1789, 882 people were registered in the Jewish community and made up one third of the overall population of the town. Just three years later, in 1792, there were 1,300 Jews living in Żytomierz who worked primarily as innkeepers, merchants, and craftsmen.

With the annexation of Żytomierz to Russia in 1792, the Jewish community became the largest one in the Volhynian province and was widely regarded as a center for Jewish life in southwestern Russia. By the mid-19th century, the Jewish community was composed of 10,459 members and had a synagogue, 30 prayer houses, 54 cheders, and a hospital with an almshouse.

During this period, religious life in Żytomierz expanded rapidly – by 1891, the community had three large synagogues, 46 prayer houses, and two rabbinical schools. Żytomierz became particularly well known as a center of Hassidism. Aharon of Zhitomir (d. 1815) and Avraham Dov Ber of Ovruch (rabbi of Zhitomir, 1826-30) were two of the first Hassidic preachers in Żytomierz. Żytomierz was also home to Ze’ev Wolf of Żytomierz, one of Maggid of Mezhirech’s disciples. Although Żytomierz was not widely considered to be a seat of rabbinical learning, its more prominent crown rabbis included Lev Bienstok, Kulisher, and S. Skomorovsky.

The rise of Hasidism coincided with the birth of Żytomierz’s Haskalah movement, which began organizing in the 1830s and 1840s. In conjunction with the maskilim, the Russian government opened a rabbinical seminary to encourage secular education among religious Jews. The first headmaster, Jacob Eichenbaum, was succeeded by Selig Slonimski in 1862. The school’s most well-known teachers included Suchastover, Gottlober, Lerner, Sweifel and Goldfaden, Mandelkern, and Paperna were among the best students who went on to have illustrious careers in the Jewish religious world.

The rabbinical school was dissolved in 1873 and transformed into a teachers’ institute angled towards training teachers for Jewish government-sponsored schools. Prominent Haskalah at the teachers’ institute included Hayim Zelig Słonimski, Avraham Ber Gottlober, Lazar (Eli’ezer) Zweifel, and Lev Binshtok, who served as the crown rabbi in 1860-80.

Although the teachers’ institute was closed in 1885, it was not the only educational option for Jews before or after its establishment. In 1862-1884, the first Jewish vocational school in Russia operated in Żytomierz, although it was eventually closed because tsarist authorities believed its instruction gave the Jews economic superiority over Christians. In 1898, a Jewish vocational school for girls was established. Additionally, Haskalah and Hasidic study continued throughout this period. By the early 20th century, there was a Talmud Torah, government school, private schools for both sexes, and a Musar yeshiva established by Rabbi Yosef Hurvich of Nowogródek were available to the Jewish community.

The first half of the 19th century also saw Jewish economic growth. By the 1860s, 90 percent and 70 percent of all people engaged in trade and craft respectively were Jewish. Although there was a general economic decline throughout the 1870s and 1880s due to the construction of railways that bypassed Żytomierz and the dispossession of Polish landowners, Jews enjoyed a new dimension of economic life outside of trade and crafts during this period: the rise of Hebrew printing presses. Zevi Hirsch (b. Simeon ha-Kohen), originally from Zholkva, established the first Hebrew printing press in 1804-6. It printed at least nine books, five of which were Hassidic and kabalistic texts. In 1847, the Shapira brothers – Hanina Lipa, Aryeh Leib, and Joshua Heschel— founded a printing press that until 1862 was one of the only Hebrew presses allowed to operate in Russia (The other one was in Vilna). In 1851, Aryeh Leib broke away to start his own printing press. In 1858-64, the original Shapira brothers’ press printed a beautiful edition of the Babylonion Talmud with Halakhot of Isaac Alfasi; Aryeh Leib’s press printed an edition of the Jerusalem Talmud in 1860-67. In the latter half of the 19th century, multiple presses that printed Yiddish and Hebrew texts were founded by Isaac Moses in 1870, Brodovitz in 1888, and Joseph Kesselman in 1890. In 1902, the Kesselman’s press was handed over to his widow Rachel, who partnered with Elijah Feinberg to continue the business.

By the early 20th century, the Jewish community had two synagogues, 50 prayer houses, a public library, Jewish bank, and, as mentioned above, multiple different schools. 38,427 Jews lived in Żytomierz, making up 47 percent of the population.

The growth achieved in the 19th century, however, was jeopardized by a series of pogroms in 1905. In April 1905, the government instigated anti-Jewish violence that resulted in the deaths of 15 Jews and N. Blinov, a non-Jew who had joined Bundist and Zionist Jewish self-defense ranks. Additionally, 10 Jews from Chudnov who were coming to assist Żytomierz Jews were murdered on their way. After the pogroms in 1905, a Jewish committee was organized to collect money for victims; they amassed 33,000 rubels from Russia, 9,500 from England, 1,500 from Germany, and 6,000 from the United States.

Pogroms continued to rage after WWI, during which refugees flooded into Żytomierz. In January 1919, the Ukrainian army and a local mob from neighboring areas attacked and looted Żytomierz Jews, causing 80 Jews to lose their lives and suffer significant losses. When Petlyura soldiers captured Żytomierz from the Red Army in March 1919, anti-Jewish riots broke out once again and resulted in the deaths of 317 Jews. Lastly, in 1920, Poles regaining control over the area attacked Jews.

When the Soviets regained control of the city, there were approximately 30,000 Jews making up 38 percent of the population of the city at the time (1926). The Soviets liquidated all organized Jewish activity. Nevertheless, local Zionist organizations, cheders, and yeshivas continued to operate underground. Various Jewish schools were established throughout the 1920s, but were liquidated in 1937-38.

The German occupation of Żytomierz began in July 1941 and continued through December 1943. When the Germans arrived, 400 Jews were shot. In August, more than 1,000 Jews were murdered. In September, the remaining Jews were ghettoized and perished from starvation and disease. Throughout September and October 1943, 6,000 Jews were shot outside of town.

During the postwar period, several thousand Jews settled in Żytomierz. In 1945, the local synagogue was officially registered and led by Rabbi Motel Voshilo. In 1955, the baking of matzo was organized and by 1959, the Jewish population of Żytomierz was between 14,800 and 25,000 people. High holidays brought thousands to synagogue and Yiddish could be heard in the streets.

The rebirth, however, was short. In 1963, the synagogue was closed and Jews were forced to hold prayer in private dwellings. In 1975, although the cemetery was opened, Jewish burials in the Jewish cemetery were suspended.

The community began developing again throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In 1980, the synagogue was reopened; the Jewish Cultural and Education Society was established in 1989; by the 1990s, a Jewish Sunday school and evening school were opened. In 1992, the Lubavitch community was registered and had 100 members. The Jewish community also established a yeshiva, school, kindergarten, library, and dining hall. Additionally, as the iron curtain began to lift, an information center was created to assist people in thinking about immigrating to Israel.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, many Żytomierz Jews immigrated to Israel, the United States, and Germany. The remaining Jews established 167 congregations – 29 of which have their own synagogues and 28 of which have Torah study groups. The Shahar Young Persons’ Club was created and a local office of for the Jewish Agency was opened. In 1996, the Joint Distribution Committee sponsored Hesed Shelomoh, a welfare organization.

By the end of the 1990s, there were 5,500 Jews in Żytomierz, 2,300 of whom were on a pension. The Żytomierz community currently has a synagogue, community center, mikveh, yeshivas, kindergartens, a day school, university for men, library, soup kitchen, women’s club, boarding house for boys and girls, and cemetery.

Bibliography

• YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe [online] http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Zhytomyr [dostęp:14.04.2020]
• Zhitomir [w:] Jewish Encyclopedia [online] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15254-zhitomir-jitomir [dostęp:14.04.2020]