According to Pinchas Mariek, a Jewish historian of the turn of the 20^th century, Jews appeared in Grodno before the 12^th century. The first Jewish citizens to settle in the town were merchants and moneylenders. They were later followed by craftsmen and people of liberal professions. The first documented evidence of the existence of the Jewish community – a letter written by Vytautas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania – dates back to 1389, but its authenticity is doubtful[1.1]. The document granted Grodno Jews permission to freely conduct commercial and crafts-related activities in the town. It is without a doubt that at the time the Jewish population of Grodno played an important role in the local economy, with the number of Jews in the town gradually increasing due to the influx of immigrants from Western Europe, persecuted by the authorities of Spain, France and Germany. By the end of the 14^th century, a synagogue and a cemetery had been established in Grodno. The Jewish Quarter was located near the Old Castle. It is highly probable, therefore, that the Grodno kehilla was a large and well-organised body.

By virtue of the decree issued by Grand Duke Alexander in 1494, Jews were expelled from Grodno and their property was taken over by the Episcopate of Vilnius, the municipality and some of the ducal officials. A similar fate befell the Jewish population of the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1503, the expelled Jews were allowed to return, and the confiscated property was returned to them.

In the 16^th and the 17^th century, the Grodno kehilla was one of the most influential and wealthiest in the region, and was one of the five leading communities of the Jewish Sejm of Lithuania (Lithuanian Va’ad). In the last three decades of the 16^th century, the first stone synagogue was erected in the town at the initiative of Rabbi Mordechai Jaffe. In 1540, 17% of the taxes collected by Queen Bona Sforza from the inhabitants of Grodno were paid by Jews. Some of them enjoyed the protection of the queen – Jehuda Bogdanowicz called himself ‘the merchant in royal grace,’ and Rubin Szlomowicz and Rubin Doktorowicz spoke of themselves as ‘servants in the royal grace.’ Grodno Jews could appeal to the queen's court. Stefan Batory and Władysław IV granted them the right to settle in the town, own property, build a synagogue, establish a cemetery, and engage in crafts and commercial activities[1.2].

In 1669, Grodno Jews were granted permission not to appear in court and make oaths during Jewish holidays (the oath could only be made in a synagogue, in Hebrew and in compliance with the tradition). Court hearings were to take place in the presence of two witnesses, representatives of the Jewish kehilla, who were to ensure that the rights of their co-religionists were respected[1.3].

In the first half of the 17^th century, the Jewish community of Grodno was considered one of the three most important Jewish communities in Lithuania (along with Brest and Pinsk) and had its representatives in the Lithuanian Va’ad. The community was not affected by the pogroms and carnage taking place during the Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1649). It became a safe haven for refugees from Ukraine.

In the mid-17^th century, the Jews of Grodno fought with the municipal authorities for the right to own shops in the market square where the parish church was located. They eventually obtained the right in September 1662[1.4]. The hitherto ban had been imposed under the suspicion that Jews would watch Christian rites from the windows of their homes and mock them. Anti-Semitic sentiments came to a boil in 1666, with a pogrom taking place on the night of 31 July. Several Christians attacked Jewish shops and houses, which resulted in significant financial losses incurred by the Jews. Several women and men suffered injuries. The court sentenced the instigators of the pogrom to a month and a half in prison and obliged the participants of the riots to pay 200 zloty to the victims. The growing tensions between Christians and Jews were evidenced by the order issued by King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki in November 1669, obliging Grodno Jews to brick up the windows of their houses facing the market square.

At the beginning of the 18^th century, Grodno became a self-governing administrative unit. In 1720, it gained the status of a district capital (earlier on, this function was performed by Indura, now a village in the Grodno Region). The seat of the special district rabbi was also relocated to the town.

In 1804, the tsarist authorities of Russia introduced the Regulation on the Settlement of Jews (Russian: Polozhenye dla Yevreyev), a document abolishing all Jewish kehillot and subjecting the Jewish population to local administrative authorities. The Grodno Jewish community, which at the beginning of the 19^th century was one of the largest in Russia, was only medium-sized in the second half of the century. This was due to the town’s economic stagnation and the rapid industrial development of neighbouring Białystok – its newly opened textile factories made it easy to find work for people from the entire region. The percentage of Jews in the total population of Grodno decreased: in 1816 they constituted 85% of the population, in 1859 – only 53%, and in 1898 – 50%. The municipality collected taxes from Jews, but the poverty of the local Jewish population resulted in the kehilla regularly falling into arrears with the state and resorting to taking out loans[1.5], often provided by Catholic monasteries.

The Grodno Jewish community had its own coat of arms, which did not depict the state eagle but a deer, an animal praised in the Old Hebrew poetry and often portrayed in European decorative art. There was a Jewish religious court (beth din) located in Grodno, dealing with both religious matters and civil lawsuits. Its members were experts in Jewish law, judges and rabbis. The institution enjoyed good reputation even among Christians, who often referred to the rabbi as an arbitrator in matters concerning Jews, and closely followed his decisions. In 1834, there were seven judges in Grodno, which was inhabited by 8,259 Jews[1.6].

One of the most influential Jewish institutions was the burial society (chevra kadisha), which acted as one of the municipal committees and was headed by the representatives of the Grodno Jewish elite: Ch. Perlis, M. Sobol, Z. Epsztejn, M.I. Eberil, I. Gerszun, J.L. Lipszyc, Z. Flat, T. Lewinson, and M. Szacharowicz[1.7]. According to the account of one of the people living in Grodno at the time, the wealthiest families in the town were the Brouds, Frumkins, and Ashkenazis, related to each other and involved in joint undertakings. Many members of the Grodno Jewish community were landowners or people working in liberal professions. Jews also leased the municipal tax and special Jewish taxes, as well as urban measures and weights, bridges and crossings[1.8].

Without the involvement of Jews, neither industry nor crafts would have developed in Grodno. Jewish eateries and taverns enlivened the town centre and the Zaniemeński Suburb. In 1886, Jews owned 95.3% of all local enterprises dealing with the production and sale of alcohol. According to the 1897 census, there were 176 Jewish-owned distilleries in Grodno[1.9]. Full-time merchants had their own stands or leased them from the municipality. They mainly sold haberdashery, foodstuffs, metal products, and used goods. Most merchants were involved in petty trade[1.10].

Jews played an important role as trade intermediaries. They bought grain in the countryside and sold it in the markets of Riga and Konigsberg. I. and L. Koganow, A. Wistiniecki, Ginzburg, and Mieten were involved in transporting bread down the Neman River[1.11]. S. Jaszumski and L. Sobol, tradesmen with the capital of one thousand roubles each, were engaged in fur trade. Grodno merchants had business ties with the Kingdom of Poland, Austria-Hungary, and Prussia[1.12].

There were also many craftsmen among Grodno Jews. This is evidenced by the 1837 census, where it is stated: “There are six cooks in the municipality, three mead millers, 10 bakers, 15 coachmen, up to 100 craftsmen” [1.13]. This information is incomplete, as the official statistics did not include masters not associated in guilds, which was the case for most of the masters from the Jewish community. At the end of the 19^th century, artisan production was dominated by Jews: in 1859, 70% of all 575 craftsmen in Grodno were Jews.

Many Jewish businesses active in a variety of industries operated in Grodno. These included M.J. Burdy and W.L. Lepunski’s headgear factory, the leather factory owned by B.L. Izabieliński and Ch.I. Girszgorn, the flannel and stockings factory of A.G. Mones and G.M. Farber[1.14]. The brickworks run by B. Andres, N. Botkowski, A. Bodylkies and M. Sobol were located outside the town, in the vicinity of the slaughterhouse[1.15]. Soap was produced by S.I. Lampert, I.M. Girszgorn, L.M. Kurianski, and others[1.16].

Grodno was well-known as a centre of the tobacco industry, with a very large tobacco company established in 1862 by I. L. Szereszewski and F. S. Russot. In 1887, 688 factory workers produced 4,864 poods (one pood = 16.38 kg) of tobacco, 22,416 poods of wild tobacco, 9,316,000 cigarettes without holders and 48,202,000 cigarettes with holders[1.17]. There were also smaller tobacco factories in the town, owned by B. Gadas and B. Finkelstein[1.18].

Some Grodno Jews were also important food suppliers for the army: merchant Brouda, M. Andres, T. Lewinson, G. Rozenblum, G. Lapidos, M. Sobol, and L. Lew. They provided military warehouses of the Grodno Governorate with cloth, flour, and groats, repaired hospital buildings and supplied them with necessary goods.

At the turn of the 20^th century, during the capitalist transformation, financial institutions began to appear in Grodno: banks, credit companies, credit unions, pawnshops, and bankers' counters. Many of these were run by Jews. In the mid-1880s, respected citizen B.G. Ashkenazi and merchants S. B. Sołowiejczyk, M. L. Knorozowski, and O. I. Wilner held seats on the board of the private Mutual Credits Association[1.19].

At the end of the 19^th century and in the early 20^th century, a number of small workshops was established in Grodno, including numerous bookbinding workshops catering to local businesses, counting houses and private individuals. Among their owners were Jews: R.O. Jonas, I.W. and M.W. Charon and E. Lejzer[1.20]. There were also numerous photographic studios in the town. They belonged to J.I. Sołowiejczyk, L.E. Blacksmith, A.S.O. Stamler and M.S. Pomerancew, M.S. Papirnom, J.O. Rajchshtein, Z.J. Karsik, and H.E. Binkowicz[1.21].

At the turn of the century, Jewish representatives of liberal professions in the Grodno Region opened up to modernisation and adopted capitalist practices. Between 1895 and 1912, some of the Jewish lawyers working in Grodno were S.S. Kramerow, L.O. Abramski, and G.H. Janowski. Most lawyers’ assistants were Jews[1.22]. In the 20^th century, the profession of medical doctor became very popular among the Europeanised Jewish youth in Grodno.

In 1916, elections to the community board were organised under the supervision of the German occupying authorities. Among the elected officials were E. Nojmark, M.O. Joffe, Doctor M. Ancelewicz, attorney A. Zadaj, I. Arkin, I. Lifszyc, B. Klempner[1.23]. The main responsibilities of the board were: conducting charity work, maintaining a national school, social care, issuing birth and death certificates, working in cooperatives, and organising secular cultural life[1.24]. Under the German occupation, a new orphanage building was erected at Skidelska Street[1.25].

One of the characteristic features of the Jewish community in Grodno in the early 20^th century was its involvement in political activities. Political struggles were commonplace within the kehilla, whose representatives were members of the Bund, Poale Zion, Mizrachi, and other parties. In 1920, the community board was composed of three rabbis, a librarian, courier, two clerks, office secretary, accountant, schoolmaster, school caretaker, carter, watchman, cashier, and cemetery director. Two synagogues and 40 prayer houses were managed by the community[1.26]. The life of the community was governed by the board and the council, both elected in general elections from lists of various political parties. In the interwar period, the Jewish community had 25,000–30,000 members[1.27].

Grodno Jews remained under the jurisdiction of state courts. In the interwar period, the Jewish community in Grodno operated under the Act of 5 April 1928, determining the system of Jewish communities in Poland. The law was supplemented by two executive regulations of the Minister of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment: one issued on 24 October 1930, regulating electoral rules for community bodies (boards and councils) and the selection of rabbis and lower rabbis, and one issued on 9 September 1931, regulating the rules of financial management of communities. The previous regulations had defined the rules for the selection of rabbis and shaping community budgets, which meant that the communities would not vote on their budgets and would collect revenue from occasional, random sources, thus paying insufficient amounts of taxes to the state. There had been periods of six of more months when officials would work without pay. The community committees had been financed independently, and the board had only been responsible for religious supervision.

In the interwar period, the seat of the community board was located at the corner of Hoovera and Skarbowa streets (currently Telmana and Uritskogo streets). On 23 February 1929, the community became a legal entity, adopted a budget, and began to collect taxes. Its affairs were managed by the council and the board, elected by popular vote on the basis of party lists. The community owned real estate in Grodno and Druskininki (about 20 buildings), a library, a hospital, a poorhouse, an old people's home, two schools of the Tarbut Jewish Educational and Cultural Association, the G. Bregman School of Crafts, a synagogue, the Haem Odam beth midrash, three cemeteries, three slaughterhouses.

Charitable activities were carried out by a network of societies: the Linas Hatsedek association offered medical help at homes and provided medicine to the poor, while the Damen Rezayv association offered nursing care to patients discharged from hospital and provided them with food. The people’s cookhouse prepared lunches for the poor, while the eatery offered meals to the middle class and the intelligentsia. The community board managed a bathhouse, the best bakery in the town, and a credit union. The cooperative supplied inexpensive goods for the working class. It opened its own bakery and a club where one could read newspapers and magazines. In the 1930s, the community gave out subsidies to the Jewish University in Jerusalem, the Jewish Research Institute in Warsaw, the Jewish Student Union, the Sha'arei Torah Yeshiva, the ORT Crafts School in Grodno, and several sports clubs (the ‘Maccabi’ Jewish Sports Club, the ‘Kraft’ Jewish Workers' Sports Club, and the ‘Morgenstern’ Jewish Sports Club). Much attention was paid to the ‘Palestinian issue.’ The Grodno community financially supported the Jewish National Fund, Keren Hayesod, HeHalutz, and the Palestinian Workers' Fund.

At that time, Grodno boasted five rabbis, two synagogues, and some 40 prayer houses attended by over 25,000 Jews. In the interwar period, the community received material aid from the American Red Cross, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, the Society for the Promotion of Professional and Agricultural Occupations in Poland (ORT), the Grodno Jews Homeland Association in Boston, and the Jewish Schools Union in Poland. It was also supported by Jewish philanthropists from Los Angeles[1.28].

In the interwar period, the rabbi of Grodno was Abram Gelbort (born 1852 in Grodno). Thanks to his extensive knowledge of the Talmud, he enjoyed great authority among his co-religionists even as a tenager. He was the favourite student of Nochum Kapłan. After Kapłan’s death, Gelbort took it upon himself to help the poor. In 1882, he was selected to be the lower rabbi, and in 1900, when the previous rabbi migrated to Palestine, he became the chief spiritual leader of Grodno[1.29]. Other prominent figures in the religious life of Grodno Jews were: Michał Dawid Rozowski (1870–1935), Cham Dawid Żurawski (since 1905), Chaim Szapiro (since 1917). In 1922, the position of the rabbi was taken by Izer Unterman[1.30].

In 1917, the ‘Yiddishe Kunst’ Jewish Art Association was formed. The festively decorated seat of the institution was opened in the centre of the town, at the corner of Dominikańska Street and S. Batorego Square. The club had a reading room and a library. There were two theatre groups in the town, one specialising in operetta and one in dramatic performances. The club organised meetings with poets, for instance with L. Najdus, and hosted theatre troupes from Vilnius and other cities.

In July 1920, during the Polish-Bolshevik War, a pogrom took place in Grodno. Almost the entire suburb inhabited by Jewish craftsmen, workers, and the poor was burnt down. 250 people were killed, and many more were wounded. Among the fatalities was a wealthy American philanthropist who had donated a large sum of money to his Grodno compatriots. In September 1920, Grodno returned to the territory of Poland. The days preceding this event were filled with much anxiety among Jews, who feared another pogrom. Eventually, however, no further riots took place. After the war, order in the town was gradually restored, and the Jewish community maintained good relations with the local authorities. Only a small number of Grodno inhabitants took part in the 1920 pogrom, so the Jewish-Christian relations in the town did not change much after that tragic event. There were instances of anti-Semitic articles being published in the press, and synagogues and the cemetery were desecrated on several occasions, but these were incidental events[1.31].

Serious tensions between Christians and Jews began to appear in the 1930s. On 7 July 1935, a pogrom took place in the town. Its causes have been described by J. Bojarski. In the summer of 1935, a Baltic sailor was visiting his family in Grodno. He was welcomed in the city as a hero. One evening, in the dancing hall at Brygidzka Street, he got into an argument over a girl with a Jew. A fight broke out. The Jew beat up the sailor, who died on the way to the hospital. His funeral precipitated a riot. Local national democrats called on the crowd to avenge the murder. Young people were breaking windows of Jewish stores. A caricature of a Jew trying to take over the world was drawn at Dominikańska Street. An angry crowd plundered stores in the town centre and went on to plunder individual houses.

Jews, mainly Zionists and communists – ca. 200 people in total – organised self-defence. Some Poles offered their help to the Jewish population. The police practically did not intervene during these events, later explaining that its assistance was needed somewhere else. During the pogrom, Gedalia Becher and Israel Berzowski were killed, several dozen were injured, and 300 people lost their belongings and/or workplace. A trial was held in the aftermath of the pogrom, resulting in the ringleader being sentenced to one year's imprisonment. The community was given a tiny compensation, not covering even a small part of the losses it had incurred. Alongside similar events in Przytyk, Mińsk Mazowiecki and Brest, this was the largest pogrom of interwar Poland. All anti-Jewish riots took place as a result of the rise of anti-Semitism in the 1930s. The news of the pogrom shocked the entire Grodno Region. Great plans to commemorate the victims of the riots were envisaged. In June 1935, the board of the Jewish community allocated 500 zloty to build a mausoleum for the dead[1.32].

Before WWII, Grodno was inhabited by no more than 200 affluent Jewish families and ca. 1,000 middle-class families (only the owner of a mechanical plant producing bicycles and motorcycles, N. Starowolski, and several merchants could be considered extremely wealthy). The community’s register of taxpayers from 1933 features the names of 3,518 Jews. 1,017 of them paid 5 zl each, 442 – 8 zl. There were only 27 of those who paid 500-3,000 zl. This group included pharmacist S. Szwarz, merchants I. Lubicz, M. Pozniak, D. and J. Chazanów, B. Bobrowicz, owner of tenement houses, and others[1.33]. In 1936, the community had 25,000 members, but only 2,825 of them were taxpayers[1.34].

In the interwar period, Grodno Jews were engaged in trade as well as small and medium-scale production. One of the establishments located at S. Batorego Square was the shop owned by Winnik, selling phonographs and radios, both very fashionable at the time. In its vicinity there was the stand run by Kremer, who sold paints. Jewish shopkeepers worked from the early hours of the morning till late in the evening – as long as there were passers-by on the streets. Several great capitalists maintained contacts with foreign partners. Archival documents indicate that in May 1933, merchants A. Lifszyc and I. Antopol went to Palestine for commercial purposes.

In the interwar period, Grodno boasted several Jewish high schools and Tarbut centres, where classes were held in Hebrew. Jewish children were subject to compulsory education and attended state schools at Wielka Troicka St. (18 classes), Szkolna St. (4 classes), Kozacka St. (3 classes), Policyjna St. (6 classes) and Mostowa St. (7 classes). Children of all genders aged 7 to 14 were taught free of charge. The municipality provided maintenance subsidies, which were used to cover teachers’ salaries, repairs, and upkeep of premises. Grodno also had two Talmud-Torah schools. The older one, founded in 1895, was located at Wyzwolenia Street. In the 1920s, it was headed by I. Sass, who also ran a private two-grade school of commerce at Listowskiego Street. In 1919-1929, S. Badylkes supervised private primary schools maintained by the Jewish community in Grodno. At the same time, he worked as a teacher of religious subjects in the Talmud-Torah School No. 1 and was a private tutor. O. Szulkes, an army sergeant stationed in Grodno, gave several music classes a week. 

At the end of the school year 1931/1932, there were 598 students attending the Talmud-Torah School No. 1[1.35]. The second Talmud-Torah school was located at Ułańska Street. Just like the older one, it also received subsidies from the municipality and the community. It was managed by the religious association Sha'ar Hatorah (Torah’s Gate) and taught Jewish boys and girls aged 7 to 14. It was located in a two-storey building. The walls of its three classrooms were decorated with photographs of prominent representatives of the Jewish community in Grodno[1.36]. In 1935, Jewish children attended the following state schools: Tarbut (554 pupils), Yavneh (463 pupils), Jewish Schools Association (210 pupils), Torat Emet (200 pupils), Talmud-Torah No. 1 (200 pupils) and No. 2 (no data)[1.37]. Young men who wanted to become rabbis attended the Shah Torah Yeshiva. Special courses headed by S. Badylkes were organised with the goal of improving the qualifications of Jewish teachers. At the primary school, there was also the three-grade Eliezar Bergman School of Crafts. It was headed by engineer M. Górzański. Its graduates were skilled locksmiths, blacksmiths, and mechanics, as well as seamstresses. The school was opened in 1902 thanks to the funds donated by E. Bregman in his last will and testament, with the help of associations promoting crafts among Jews. In 1925, the school started to run vocational courses for adults. It trained carpenters, locksmiths, and electricians[1.38].

Political organisations focused their attention on the upbringing and education of the Jewish youth. Each party had its own youth organisation. In the mid-1930s, one of the most active youth associations in Grodno was Akiba, which sought to support not only the intellectual but also physical development of young people. It organised scouting and vocational competitions aimed at preparing young people for adulthood and familiarising them with professions that could be useful in their future life in Palestine.

After the installation of the Soviet rule in September 1939, the Jewish community in Grodno practically ceased to function. The property of the community was nationalised, the board and all the organisations ended their activities. Jews who were members of the parties deemed inconvenient under the new system started to suffer repressions, with the authorities organising mass arrests of Jewish activists. Observing many religious customs became practically impossible: on Saturday, it was obligatory to go to work, kosher slaughter was banned, aggressive anti-religious propaganda became widespread, Jewish schools were closed down. The only remnant of Jewish cultural life in the town were the visits to the synagogue, still active at the time, and to the theatre offering performances in Yiddish. On 20 June, on the eve of the German-Soviet War, many Jews were denounced as “harmful and dangerous activists,” loaded into freight wagons and deported to remote regions of the USSR. Most of the deportees did not reach their destination; they were killed on 24 June, when the train was bombed by Germans near Baranowicze (Baranavichy).

At the beginning of the German occupation, Jews were submitted to various restrictions: they were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks and come to the market, they had to take off their hats when passing by a German in a uniform. Jews were forced to wear a blue six-pointed star on their left arm, which was then changed into the yellow Star of David sewn on the back or the front of the garment. The Jewish community was to be managed by the Judenrat, made up of 10 people and headed by the former director of the Tarbut lower secondary school, David Brawer.

The first wave of repressions swept through the city in early July 1941, when the Gestapo killed 80 representatives of the Jewish intelligentsia. In November 1941, two ghettos were created in Grodno. In early November, Jews from Grodno were transferred to the ghetto no. 1 (currently Zamkovaya – Bolshaya Troitskaya – Vilenskaya – Sovetskaya streets), where ca. 15,000 people were enclosed, and ghetto no. 2 (streets: Kosmonavtov - Lidskaya - Bielusa - Antonava), with ca. 10,000 prisoners.

The Grodno Judenrat is remembered as one of the most just in the history of the Holocaust. D. Brawer and his subordinates – I. Gorzański, head of the Judenrat in the ghetto no. 1, and I. Zadaj, his counterpart in the ghetto no. 2 – did everything in their power to prevent starvation. D. Brawer, resorting to bribes and using his personal contacts, managed to obtain increased food rations from the military police, organised the supply of smuggled food, matches and soap, while I. Suchowlański, responsible for financial affairs, developed a very good budget, supplemented by taxes from the most affluent Jews. There were workshops in the ghetto that worked for the Wehrmacht, a shoe factory and a small ammunition factory, vegetables were grown in the gardens. Both ghettos had hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies, and efforts were made to improve the sanitary system.

Zionist youth organisations were active in both ghettos, each of which also kept archives. The inhabitants of the ghetto planned to assassinate O. Strebelov, the local executioner and commander of the ghetto no. 2, but no attempt was ever implemented, neither were the plans to organise an uprising.

At the end of 1942, deportations to Nazi death camps in Treblinka and Auschwitz Birkenau began. In February 1943, a campaign of mass extermination of the ghetto population was carried out, during which D. Brawer and all members of the Judenrat were shot, while many Jews were sent to death camps. The last stage of the liquidation of the ghetto took place in March 1943.

In the first years after World War II, ca. 2,000 Jews returned to Grodno. Initially, however, they did not form any organised community. Until the 1960s, there was no synagogue in the city. The Jewish cemetery was ploughed in the mid-1950s. Jewish life in Grodno began to recover in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The authorities returned the building of the choral synagogue to the Jewish community and numerous Jewish institutions and facilities were established, for example the Chesed Nochum charity centre, the Menora community house, the district office for Jewish culture, the municipal branch of the Belarusian Association of Jews – former ghetto inhabitants and prisoners of Nazi camps, the Grodno Union of Jewish Youth and Students, the Sunday school, and later – a Jewish group in the kindergarten.

Olga Sobolewska

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