It is estimated that the beginning of the Jewish settlement in Oświęcim began in the first half of the 16th century, when Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk redeemed the Duchy of Oświęcim from the Bohemian vassalage in 1457. The King supported the development of the town, the result of which was his approval for the Jewish settlement within its limits. However, as the town was situated at the intersection of trade routes and near other trade centres, there might have been many Jews among the merchants arriving to Oświęcim at the earlier time[1.1], though no historical references confirm that[1.2]. The Piast dynasty from the Duchy of Oświęcim and Zator was not in favor of the earlier Jewish settlement in the region.
The first references concerning the Jews in Oświęcim come from Inwentarz procentów wszystkich Oświęcimskich A. D. 1549 (The Inventory of the Percentage of All Jews in Oświęcim A.D. 1549)[1.3]. King Kazimierz confirmed the previous privileges granted to Jews, who settled in the area around the castle and in the northern part of the town. They dealt mostly with the sale of alcoholic beverages, usury and trade, and in the mid-16th century “they had already taken up the northern part of the town and made attempts to settle in the market square area as well. The contemporary Polish law allowed Jews to acquire properties in the town, but prohibited them from purchasing of country estate[1.4]. Gradually, the Jews moved to the southern part of the town. The area around the castle and Żydowska Street (today’s Berka Joselewicza Street) became the centre of Jewish life. However, according to Artur Szyndler, Jews also lived in other parts of the town, which indicates that they did not occupy a separate district at that time[1.5].
In the vicinity of Berka Joselewicza Street, on the grounds handed over to the kehilla by a townsman Jan Piotraszewski[1.6], the first wooden synagogue was erected in 1588; it was probably destroyed during the Swedish Deluge. Moreover, a cemetery and other institutions necessary for the proper functioning of the Jewish community were established. The main occupation of the community members was the production of alcoholic beverages, usury, as well as the distribution and wholesale trade of the Bochnia salt[1.7].
In 1551 and 1569, King Zygmunt II August guaranteed the Jews of Poland the possibility of electing their chief rabbi and of organizing their community. However, because the inhabitants of Oświęcim demanded that the right for Jews should be limited, in 1563, King Zygmunt II August granted the townspeople a privilege which was, in fact, a ban on the settlement of new Jews coming to the town (numerus clausus). However, “Frequent restrictions of that kind introduced against the Jews at that time did not have many serious implications. The strict observance of such privileges would often slow many fields of economy and the outflow of the capital”[1.8]. The period of the second half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century was the time of greatest prosperity of Oświęcim Jews. It was undoubtedly connected with the economic and geographical factors, but also with the change of the political status of the town and its incorporation into Poland, as well as the possibility of the royal privileges[1.9].
In the 17th century, the Jews of Oświęcim fell victim to riots and the Council of Four Lands had to intervene. One of the representatives of the Jewish population in the Council was Icchak Ajzyk Landau, the president of the rabbinical court in Oświęcim[1.10]. The accusations of theft and profanation of the Host (1580 and 1627) were common in Oświęcim in the 16th and 17th centuries[1.11].
On 10 March 1636, king Władysław IV Waza issued in Kraków a privilege for the Jewish community in Oświęcim, which guaranteed Jews the right to take up residence, to own houses and properties – both in the town and outside its borders – and the right to use the synagogue and the cemetery. At that time, the Jews of Oświęcim came under the administration of the community in Kraków, and all Jews from Kraków Province fell within the jurisdiction of the Kraków province governor. During the wars with Sweden (1656), Oświęcim was completely destroyed, which led to the economic collapse of the town. However, thanks to the privilege issued by king Władysław, along with the development of the town, the Jewry of Oświęcim was reborn. In 1766, king Stanisław August Poniatowski confirmed all the privileges granted to the Jews of Oświęcim[1.12].
In 1772, the House of Habsburg took control of Oświęcim and the town was incorporated into Galicia. The 18th-century regulations initially limited Jews, only to smoothly introduce them into the structures of the Monarchy’s society during the reign of Emperor Joseph II after 1780. At that time, in 1804, Jakub Haberfeld set up a well-known Vodka and Liqueur Factory in Oświęcim.
The rights of Jews and of the rest of the inhabitants of Galicia were equalized. As a result, “in the very first council of the town of Oświęcim, elected in 1867, nine of twenty-four councillors were Jewish, while in the subsequent years the proportion was as follows: in 1870, eleven out of twenty-four councillors were Jewish, then, in the next elections, in 1873 and 1876, the number of the Jews performing the role of councillors increased to thirteen”[1.13]. The Jews were also elected as deputy mayors of the town – in 1873, Juliusz Haberfeld, and in 1876, Dr Maurycy Schlank. Moreover, they also held the function of assistant judges and activists in the town council.
In the second half of the 19th century, for a few years, Szlomo (Salomon Meir) Halbersztam (1847-1906) performed the role of a rabbi. In 1866, the Jewish community of Oświęcim also included the Jews from Kęty, Międzybrodzie, Myślenice, Wilamowice and Brzeszcz, Dolna Wieś, Dwory, Bierutowice, Bęczarki, Babice, Budy, Brzezinek, Bulowice, Bujaków, Bielany, Czaniec, Trzemeśnia, Głogoczów, Grojec, Hecznarowice, Jasienica, Jawiszowice, Jawornik, Kobiernice, Kańczuga, Krzywaczka, Krzyszkowice, Klucznikowice, Kaniów, Krzeczonów, Jawornik, Łazy, Grodzisk, Łęki, Monowice, Malec, Nowa Wieś, Osiek, Osieczany, Pcimi, Porąbka, Poręba, Pisarzowice, Rajsk, Radziszów, Rudnik, Stare Stawy, Sułkowice, Stróże, Skidziń, Stara Wieś, Wola Radziszewska and Zawada[1.14]. In Oświęcim, Jews made a living by producing vodka, liqueur, carbonated water, but they also specialized in tanning, chemical, building, cement and processing industries, trade, handicraft and industrial production. The most well-known Jewish families in Oświęcim were the Enochs, Schönkers, Herberfelds and Henerbergs[1.15].
In 1892, the kehilla of Oświęcim lost some of its members due to the establishment of a new kehilla in the nearby Andrychów[1.16]. In 1900, the members of the Oświęcim kehilla included Jews from Babice, Bestwinka with Kaniów, Bielany, Broszkowice, Brzeszcze, Brzezinka, Bujaków, Bulowice, Czaniec, Dankowice with Kaniów Dańkowski, Dwory, Grójec, Haręże, Hecznarowice, Jawiszowice, Kańczuga, Kaniów Stary, Kęty, Kobiernice, Klucznikowice, Kruki, Łazy, Łęki, Malec, Międzybrodzie Kobiernickie, Monowice, Nowa Wieś, Osiek, Oświęcim, Pławy, Pisarzowice, Polanka Wielka, Poręba Wielka, Porąbka, Przecieszyn, Rajsko with Budy, Skidziń, Stare Stawy, Stara Wieś Dolna, Sara Wieś Górna, Wilamowice, Witkowice, Wilczkowice, Włosienica, Zaborze[1.17].
According to the regulation of 1894, the Oświęcim kehilla was obliged to draw up its own statute, which was signed by the kehilla authorities on 31 December 1895.[1.18]. The Imperial-Royal Viceroyalty of Lvov confirmed the new charter for the Israeli Religious Community in 1899. The document regulated the life of the Jews of Oświęcim up until the end of the 1920s[1.19], but before it came into force, the kehilla of Oświęcim had operated according to the emperor’s patent of 1789. The kehilla was headed by a council consisting of three members – Bernard Pilzer, Jakób Huppert and Marcus Liberman. Israel Gruber, Mojżesz Wulkan from Oświęcim, Szymon Pelzman from Kęty and the kehilla rabbi Abraham Schnur, who were appointed by the district governor, worked from 1895 on the new statute[1.20]. The presidents were: Jakub Schneider from 3 July 1904, in the years 1910-1916 - Józef Thieberg, and from 1916 to 1921 - Naftali Dawid Bochner and Rudolf Heberfeld, and then, Abraham Grosswho served twice as the president[1.21]. At the end of the 19th century, the role of the kehilla assistant judge was performed by Laser Landau and Chaim Wolf Bombach, whereas the role of a rabbi, after rabbi Schnur left Oświęcim, by Izak Landesdorfer and Natan Wilkon, while “at the turn of 1900 and 1901, the community still did not have a formally elected rabbi”[1.22]. Osias Pinkas Bombach, who had been a rabbi for 20 years (as a district rabbi[1.23]), was elected the rabbi of Oświęcim for the period of three years in 1901. The last Oświęcim rabbi was Eljasz Bombach, who performed the function until 1941, when he was taken to the ghetto in Sosnowiec and killed in Auschwitz in 1943[1.24]. According to Lucyna Filip, the rabbis in the Oświęcim kehilla were: Mosze Jakub Szarf, Bale Israel Blicher, Abele Schnur (Abraham Shnur, a rabbi in the years 1881-1900[1.25]), Szlomo (Salomon Meir) Halberstam, Barwisz Frumer, Elazar Halevi Rosenfeld, Osias (Ozjasz) Pinkas Bombach (a rabbi from Drohobycz 1865-1921, in Oświęcim from 1901 to 1920), after whose death, the function of the chief rabbi of Oświęcim was taken over by his son, Eljasz Bombach (1883-1943, a rabbi between 1921-1941)[1.26]. In the interwar period, the assistants to the district rabbi, who were members of the advisory council, were Eliezer Landau, Nachum Efraim Halbersztadt, Haim Jehuda Halbersztadt, Elieser Halbersztadt, Elieser Rosenberg, Haim Rosenber, all of whom died during World War II[1.27].
The kehilla of Oświęcim was included in the Jewish register district of Oświęcim. It was also the seat of the district court, and the following localities belonged to it: Babice, Bestwinka with Kaniów Bestwiński, Broszkowice, Brzeszcze, Brzezinka, Dankowice with Kaniów Dankowicki, Dwory, Grojec, Harmęże, Jawiszowice, Kaniów Stary, Klucznikowice, Kruki, Łazy, Monowice, Oświęcim, Pławy, Polanka Wielka, Poręba Wielka, Przecieszyn, Rajsko with Budy, Skidzin, Stare Stawy, Wilczkowice, Włosienica, Zaborze[1.28]. Further amendments to the Israeli community statue of 1920 said that the kehilla of Oświęcim belonged to so-called big communities, that is, the ones inhabited by over 5,000 Jews[1.29].
In 1904, the 24-member Town Council of Oświęcim had as many as 13 Jewish councillors, whereas in 1932, 18 out of 32 councillors were Jewish. Two years later, Dr Emil Samuel Reich (1933-1939) became the Deputy Mayor of Oświęcim. In the elections to the municipal authorities in 1922, the Orthodox party received as many as 11 out of 12 mandates; Dr Goldberg, a Zionist, won one seat. In 1927, the Zionists became more influential. Religious parties received at that time seven mandates and the Zionist parties, five, including one Revisionist. In 1938, Orthodox tendencies again gained popularity and the Zionists got only four mandates[1.30].
Meanwhile, in the elections conducted in kehillas on 4 December 1921, out of 800 people eligible to vote, 14 mandates won orthodox, 1 Zionists and 1 non-partisans[1.31]. Between 1928-1929, 4 votes received Zionists, 5 – the so-called Kehilla Party, 1 – oposition, 2 –Bobowa Chassidim. 1042 people were eligible to vote[1.32].
The first decade of the 20th century was a very prosperous time for the Jewish community of Oświęcim and for the entire town. From the economic point of view, events that proved important at that time included the opening of the Emigration Station for the Seasonal Workers of the National Employment Agency and the construction of a railroad. The Jewish contribution to the economic development of the town manifested itself, for example, in the establishment of the Nathanson and Malcer’s Building Paper and Asphalt Factory, Landau and Wolf’s Roofing Paper Factory, Chemical Products Factory “Union” owned by Józef Schönker who also took over the Pavement Slab Factory belonging to the Frenkel Brothers & Co. and, in 1906, established the Fertilizers and other Chemical Products Factory “Agrochemia” Ltd. The 19th-century Vodka and Liqueur Factory owned by Jakub Haberfeld still operated in Oświęcim [1.33].
The Jews of Oświęcim actively participated in World War I, for example, by propagating the idea of the Polish Legions and raising funds for the Treasury, as well as by hosting Piłsudski and the Brigade I of the Polish Legions[1.34]. As far as political activity among the Jews is concerned, the following Jewish parties were active in Oświęcim: Orthodox Jews from Aguda (Szymon Danzing, Izrael Ostrau[1.35]) and Mizrachi Zionist, Zionist Jews in Mizrachi (Baruch Dawid Brenner)[1.1.35]) and General Zionists (Histadrut ha Cyjonit de Polonijah; Dr. Maurycy Goldberg and Mojżesz Honnenberg[1.36]). There was also the extremist Revisionist Party, socialist parties and labour parties – General Jewish Labour Bund, Poale Zion Right, left-wing pro-Communist Poale Zion Left (Chaim Fusch, Dawid Timberg)[1.37]), and the Jewish Labour Party Hitachdut[1.38] (or Hitachduth, Józef Stteinchermer, Salomon Boucher[1.1.37]). Young Jews joined the left-wing radical Hashomer Hatzair which was established in 1919 by Małka Goldstein Chagitii[1.39] who was also the president of the party. Young Zionists received training in Akiwa organization whose leader was Szternberg, whereas the Revisionists had their own scout wing[1.40]. There was also the Citizens’ Committee for pioneers and Cejre Mizrachi, a youth organization[1.41]. From 1924 onwards, women also had their own Women International Zionist Organization (WIZO) and the Jewish Women Association, which, from 1920, promoted Hebrew and Jewish language, culture, as well as history and Polish-Palestinian relations[1.42].
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the most popular form of Judaism was Hasidism whose representatives had at the time at least a dozen or so houses of prayer, including “Wiśnicz”, “Sandez” (“Sącz”), “Radomsk”, “Bełz”, “Bobowa”, “Chrzanów”, and probably “Sadogóra”[1.43].
One of the tzadikim of Oświęcim, already mentioned, was Salomon Meir Halbersztam; another tzadik was Eli Machsezer Halewi Rosenfeld, the son-in-low of the tzadik of Sącz, the brother-in-low of the tzadik of Wiśnicz[1.44]. Moreover, in Oświęcim, there was a group of the supporters of the Radomsko tzadik, Salomon Chanoch Rabinowicz from Radomsko, whose yeshiva in Oświęcim was called Keser Torah[1.45].
An amateur theatre group, Szyr Jewish Singing Group, and the Jewish sports club Kadimah all contributed to the cultural and sport life development in Oświęcim prior to the war[1.46].
In 1939, World War II broke out and the occupiers seized the town in the very first days of September. Earlier, some Jews escaped east due to the German air raids. As early as 29/30 November, the Great Synagogue in Oświęcim was destroyed. In December 1939, the Judenrat was established. In February 1940, 200-500 Jews were adjusting former barracks. It was the place where the first camp named Auschwitz was established. In 1940, Jews were gathered in a separate district. In October 1940, 600 people were transported to the labour camp in Góra Świętej Anny and in 1940 another hundreds of people were sent to ghettos in Silesia. In April 1941, the last group was transported to Sosnowiec and Będzin and then to the extermination camp in Bełżec[1.47].
Oświęcim has been often associated with the German concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. However, its tragic history, a symbol of the Holocaust, is not a part of the history of Jewish community in Oświęcim. Exhaustive information about the German concentration camp you will find hereMiejsca martyrologii [online] .
The Soviet Army entered Oświęcim on 27 January 1945. By the middle of the year, seventy-seven Jewish inhabitants, who survived the Holocaust, arrived home in Oświęcim, which, by that time, had already returned to Poland. In September of the same year, their number grew to 186. In the post-war years, most of the Jews who had returned to the town, emigrated to Israel and the US, and as a result the Jewish population of Oświęcim numbered as few as 40 people in 1946.
The turn of the centuries saw a turning point. In 1998, the Chewra Lomdei Misznajot synagogue was returned to the Jewish Religious Community in Bielsko-Biała. In the same year, the temple was transferred to the Auschwitz Jewish Centre Foundation. The last resident of pre-war Oświęcim, Szymon Kluger, died in 2000. It was the year of the opening of the Jewish Centre in Oświęcim, affiliated with the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York City since 2006.
Bibliography:
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L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918–1941, (2003).
-
J. Michalewicz, Żydowskie okręgi metrykalne i żydowskie gminy wyznaniowe w Galicji, (1995).
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Oświęcim, in: Sh. Spector, G. Wigoder (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust, (2001), 954–955.
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K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918–1939), (2005).
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Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI–XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, „Studia Judaica”, 2, (2002), 10.
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Szyndler, Status prawny Izraelickiej Gminy Wyznaniowej w Oświęcimiu w latach 1890–1927, in: K. Pilarczyk (ed.), Żydzi i judaizm we współczesnych badaniach polskich, 3, (2003).
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- [1.5] A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 46.
- [1.6] Piotraszewskiego or Piotraszowskiego, qtd. by A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 49. In his study, L. Filip informs that the land where the synagogue and cemetery were to be built was not granted for free, but bought by the kehilla from the owner, see: L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 48.
- [1.7] A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 45.
- [1.8] A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 47.
- [1.9] A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 43-44.
- [1.10] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 16.
- [1.11] :| A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 53-54.
- [1.12] :| A. Szyndler, Osadnictwo żydowskie w Oświęcimiu w wiekach XVI-XVII (do roku 1772). Zarys problematyki, in: „Studia Judaica 5”: No. 2 (10) – 6: 2003 No. 1 (11), (2002), 56.
- [1.13] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 22.
- [1.14] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 23.
- [1.15] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 84.
- [1.16] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 82.
- [1.17] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 39-40.
- [1.18] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 26-27.
- [1.19] A. Szyndler, Status prawny Izraelickiej Gminy Wyznaniowej w Oświęcimiu w latach 1890-1927, in: K. Pilarczyk (ed.), Żydzi i judaizm we współczesnych badaniach polskich, 3, (2003), 117.
- [1.20] A. Szyndler, Status prawny Izraelickiej Gminy Wyznaniowej w Oświęcimiu w latach 1890-1927, in: K. Pilarczyk (ed.), Żydzi i judaizm we współczesnych badaniach polskich, 3, (2003), 120.
- [1.21] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 26-27; A. Szyndler, Status prawny Izraelickiej Gminy Wyznaniowej w Oświęcimiu w latach 1890-1927, in: K. Pilarczyk (ed.), Żydzi i judaizm we współczesnych badaniach polskich, 3, (2003), 124-125.
- [1.22] A. Szyndler, Status prawny Izraelickiej Gminy Wyznaniowej w Oświęcimiu w latach 1890-1927, in: K. Pilarczyk (ed.), Żydzi i judaizm we współczesnych badaniach polskich, 3, (2003), 124-125.
- [1.23] Lucyna Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, Oświęcim 2003, p. 76.
- [1.24] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 85.
- [1.25] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 117.
- [1.26] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 33.
- [1.27] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 63.
- [1.28] J. Michalewicz, Żydowskie okręgi metrykalne i żydowskie gminy wyznaniowe w Galicji, (1995), 106.
- [1.29] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 42-44.
- [1.30] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 47.
- [1.31] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918–1939), (2005), 192.
- [1.32] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918–1939), (2005), 201.
- [1.33] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 36.
- [1.34] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 37.
- [1.35] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 151.
- [1.1.35] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 151.
- [1.36] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 158.
- [1.37] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 151.
- [1.38] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 83-84.
- [1.1.37] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 151.
- [1.39] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 91.
- [1.40] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 93.
- [1.41] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 94.
- [1.42] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 96.
- [1.43] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 86.
- [1.44] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 87.
- [1.45] K. Samsonowska, Wyznaniowe gminy żydowskie i ich społeczności w województwie krakowskim (1918-1939), (2005), 88.
- [1.46] L. Filip, Żydzi w Oświęcimiu 1918-1941, (2003), 121-123.
- [1.47] Oświęńcim, in: Sh. Spector, G. Wigoder (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust, (2001), 954–955.